Complete Logical Fallacy Reference Guide
A Comprehensive Resource for Critical Thinking
Complete Logical Fallacy Reference Guide
A Comprehensive Resource for Critical Thinking
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Introduction
This guide catalogs 85+ logical fallacies organized into 21 categories. Use it as a tool for identifying flawed reasoning in arguments, debates, media, and public discourse. Understanding these patterns strengthens your ability to think critically and resist manipulation.
Related Essay: This reference accompanies “Think for Yourself: A Citizen’s Guide to Fallacy Literacy” which explores why understanding these patterns matters for democratic participation.
Quick Reference - Fallacy Categories
Personal Attacks & Dismissals
Ad Hominem (Argument To The Man)
Needling
Poisoning The Wells
Psychogenetic Fallacy
Argument By Dismissal
Argument To The Future
Changing The Subject (Red Herring, Misdirection)
Argument By Fast Talking
Distortion & Misrepresentation
Straw Man (Fallacy Of Extension)
Inflation Of Conflict
Bad Analogy
Extended Analogy
Argument From Spurious Similarity
Reifying
Equivocation
Euphemism
Weasel Wording
Emotional Manipulation
Argument From Adverse Consequences (Appeal To Fear)
Argument By Emotive Language (Appeal To The People)
Argument By Personal Charm
Appeal To Pity (The Galileo Argument)
Appeal To Force
Argument By Vehemence
False Choices & Oversimplification
Excluded Middle (False Dichotomy, Bifurcation)
Reductive Fallacy (Oversimplification)
Causal Reductionism (Complex Cause)
Slippery Slope Fallacy (Camel’s Nose)
Moving The Goalposts (Raising The Bar)
Questions & Burden of Proof
Burden Of Proof
Argument By Question
Argument By Rhetorical Question
Complex Question (Tying)
Authority & Expertise
Argument From Authority
Argument From False Authority
Appeal To Anonymous Authority
Appeal To False Authority
Statement Of Conversion
Argument From Age (Wisdom of Ancients)
Not Invented Here
Evidence & Logic
Begging The Question (Assuming The Answer, Tautology)
Stolen Concept
False Cause
Confusing Correlation And Causation
Special Pleading (Stacking The Deck)
Argument By Half Truth (Suppressed Evidence)
Argument By Selective Observation (Cherry Picking)
Argument By Selective Reading
Affirming The Consequent
Non Sequitur
Statistical & Numerical
Argument By Generalization
Argument From Small Numbers
Fallacy Of The General Rule
Fallacy Of Composition
Fallacy Of Division
Misunderstanding Statistics (Innumeracy)
Complexity & Communication
Appeal To Complexity
Argument By Prestigious Jargon
Argument By Gibberish (Bafflement)
Consistency & Contradiction
Inconsistency
Internal Contradiction
Special Cases & Miscellaneous
Appeal To Widespread Belief (Bandwagon, Peer Pressure)
Cliche Thinking
Argument By Repetition (Ad Nauseam)
Argument By Pigheadedness (Doggedness)
Genetic Fallacy (Fallacy of Origins)
Argument Of The Beard
Common Sense
Least Plausible Hypothesis
Argument By Scenario
Hypothesis Contrary To Fact
Reductio Ad Absurdum
False Compromise
Fallacy Of The Crucial Experiment
Two Wrongs Make A Right (Tu Quoque)
Pious Fraud
Error Of Fact
Argument From Personal Astonishment
Lies
Contrarian Argument
Ambiguous Assertion
Failure To State
Outdated Information
Amazing Familiarity
Having Your Cake (Failure To Assert)
Meaningless Questions
Disproof By Fallacy
Complete Definitions by Category
ATTACKS ON THE PERSON (Not The Argument)
Ad Hominem (Argument To The Man)
Definition: Attacking the person instead of addressing their argument.
Examples:
“Von Daniken’s books are worthless because he is a convicted forger”
“How can you argue for vegetarianism when you wear leather shoes?”
“Scientists were all drunk” (dismissing entire category)
“You’re new here, aren’t you?” (disrespect/status attack)
“If you weren’t so stupid you would see my point”
“You seem very emotional” (after hogging microphone)
Valid Exception: When attack goes to credibility of argument (e.g., undermining false claim of expertise)
Related: Needling, Poisoning The Wells, Psychogenetic Fallacy
Needling
Definition: Attempting to make opponent angry without addressing argument.
Examples:
Insulting opponent’s beliefs
Interrupting, clowning, being noisy
Winking at audience to show disrespect
Cutting off microphone (if you control it)
Note: Works better if you’re running the show or have sympathetic moderator.
Poisoning The Wells
Definition: Discrediting sources used by opponent before they’re presented.
Examples:
“Don’t listen to those biased scientists”
“That newspaper is known for fake news”
Related: Ad Hominem variation focusing on information sources.
Psychogenetic Fallacy
Definition: If you learn psychological reason why opponent likes argument, claim they’re biased so argument must be wrong.
Examples:
“You only support that policy because you’d benefit financially”
“Your childhood trauma makes you think that way”
Valid Use: Understanding motivation ≠ dismissing argument.
DISTORTING THE OPPONENT’S POSITION
Straw Man (Fallacy Of Extension)
Definition: Attacking exaggerated or caricatured version of opponent’s position.
Examples:
“Evolution means a dog giving birth to a cat”
“Senator Jones wants to leave us defenseless” (from: shouldn’t fund one submarine)
Comparing opponent to Hitler over minor disagreement
Inflation Of Conflict
Definition: Arguing that because scholars debate a point, their entire field is “in crisis” or doesn’t exist.
Examples:
“Historians debate whether Hitler killed 5 or 6 million Jews, therefore Holocaust didn’t happen”
“Two scientists can’t agree on dates (that differ by <1%), therefore dating methods are worthless”
Note: Healthy debate ≠ fundamental uncertainty.
FEAR, EMOTION & MANIPULATION
Argument From Adverse Consequences (Appeal To Fear)
Definition: Claiming opponent must be wrong because bad things would ensue if right.
Examples:
“God must exist, because godless society would be lawless”
“Defendant must be guilty, or husbands will murder wives”
“Global warming can’t raise oceans because my house is 6 inches above sea level”
Related: Wishful thinking (positive or negative consequences).
Argument By Emotive Language (Appeal To The People)
Definition: Using emotionally loaded words to sway sentiments instead of minds.
Examples:
Using anger, spite, envy, condescension as tools
Seeding audience with “shills” who chant/applaud
Using emotional music or imagery in presentations
Language that triggers rather than informs
Related: Cliche Thinking, Argument By Slogan, Argument By Poetic Language.
Argument By Personal Charm
Definition: Getting audience to cut you slack based on likability.
Note: Charm creates trust, desire to join winning team, or please speaker.
Appeal To Pity (The Galileo Argument)
Definition: “Scientists scoffed at Galileo; they scoff at me; therefore I’m right”
Examples:
“I’m suffering enough through being an orphan” (after murdering parents)
“They laughed at Edison; they won’t give my ideas fair hearing either”
Note: Being persecuted doesn’t make you right. Galileo was right AND persecuted (not right BECAUSE persecuted).
Appeal To Force
Definition: Threats or violence as argument.
Examples:
Threat of lawsuit
Religious threats (”You’ll burn in Hell”)
Physical violence or intimidation
Argument By Vehemence
Definition: Being loud as substitute for being right.
Trial Lawyer Rule:
If you have facts, pound on facts
If you have law, pound on law
If you have neither, pound on table
Related: SHOUTING IN ALL CAPS, tantrums to get reputation.
FALSE CHOICES & OVERSIMPLIFICATION
Excluded Middle (False Dichotomy, Bifurcation)
Definition: Assuming only two alternatives when more exist.
Examples:
“Either you’re with us or against us”
“Atheism is only alternative to Fundamentalism”
“Either traitor or loud patriot”
Related: Short Term vs. Long Term (false choice between addressing crime OR improving schools).
Reductive Fallacy (Oversimplification)
Definition: Over-simplifying complex issues.
Einstein’s Rule: “Everything should be made as simple as possible, but no simpler”
Examples:
“Taxation is theft” (political slogan)
Reducing multi-causal problems to single cause
Related: Causal Reductionism.
Causal Reductionism (Complex Cause)
Definition: Using one cause to explain something with multiple causes.
Example: “Accident was caused by taxi parking in street” (ignoring drunk driver).
QUESTION-BASED FALLACIES
Burden Of Proof
Definition: Claiming that whatever hasn’t been proved false must be true (or vice versa).
Problems:
Arguer claims priority without backing it up
Impatience with ambiguity
“Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence”
Argument By Question
Definition: Asking question without snappy answer, making opponent look weak or long-winded.
Example: “How can scientists believe a living cell arose from random processes?”
Note: Usually takes longer to answer question than ask it.
Related: Rhetorical Question, Loaded Question (”Have you stopped beating your wife?”).
Argument By Rhetorical Question
Definition: Asking question in way that leads to particular answer.
Examples:
“When will we give old folks the pension they deserve?” (Answer: Right now)
vs. “When will we be able to afford pension increase?” (Answer: Not now)
Complex Question (Tying)
Definition: Treating unrelated points as if they should be accepted/rejected together.
Example: “Do you support freedom and the right to bear arms?”
Note: Each point should be evaluated on its own merits.
AUTHORITY & EXPERTISE
Argument From Authority
Definition: “I’m an expert, so trust me”
Problems:
Degrees and areas of expertise matter
Expertise must be relevant to subject
Being expert in quackery = admission of gullibility
Valid When: Authority is relevant, recent, and verifiable.
Argument From False Authority
Definition: “I’m not a doctor, but I play one on TV”
Related: Appeal to unnamed authorities (”experts agree”, “they say”).
Appeal To Anonymous Authority
Definition: Claiming “experts agree” without naming them.
Problem: Makes information impossible to verify; may just be spreading rumor.
Appeal To False Authority
Definition: Authority outside their area of expertise.
Example: “Physicist John Taylor found no fraud in Uri Geller’s psychic feats” (Taylor not qualified to detect stage magic; later admitted being tricked).
Variations:
Non-existent authority (made-up journals)
Misquotes (out of context, edited, glued together)
Statement Of Conversion
Definition: “I used to believe X” (implying expertise through having explored it).
Examples:
“I used to think that way when I was your age”
Authors claiming they “used to be” proponents of opposite view
Problem: Doesn’t demonstrate actual expertise.
TRADITION & NOVELTY
Argument From Age (Wisdom of Ancients)
Definition: Very old (or very young) arguments are superior.
Examples:
“New! Improved!” (innovation as virtue)
“Old Fashioned” (tradition as virtue)
Related: Genetic Fallacy (things from particular origin have/lack virtue).
Not Invented Here
Definition: Ideas from elsewhere are unwelcome; “This is how we’ve always done it”
Note: Can work in reverse (foreign things held as superior).
DISMISSAL & DEFLECTION
Argument By Dismissal
Definition: Rejecting idea without saying why.
Examples:
“If you don’t like it, leave the country”
“If you don’t like it, live in Communist country”
Note: Usually has overtones (hopeless cause, unpatriotic, foreign ideas).
Argument To The Future
Definition: “Evidence will someday be discovered that proves me right”
Changing The Subject (Red Herring, Misdirection)
Definition: Avoiding defending claim or making good on promise.
Examples:
Announcing tax increase (hiding larger increase elsewhere)
Quibbling about word meanings to derail argument
Asking opponent to “define ‘is’”
Deliberate misunderstanding
Announcing “no question period” then not leaving
Related: Argument By Fast Talking.
Argument By Fast Talking
Definition: Moving from idea to idea quickly so audience can’t think.
Psychological note: Some research suggests people must briefly believe what they hear to understand it. Rapid delivery prevents rejection.
CIRCULAR REASONING
Begging The Question (Assuming The Answer, Tautology)
Definition: Reasoning in circle; thing to be proved is used as assumption.
Examples:
“We need death penalty to discourage crime” (assumes it discourages)
“Stock market fell because of technical adjustment” (but is adjustment just another name for fall?)
Stolen Concept
Definition: Using what you’re trying to disprove.
Examples:
Using science to show science is wrong
Arguing you don’t exist (but existence required to make argument)
Related: Begging The Question, but about what you’re trying to disprove.
Contrast: Reductio Ad Absurdum (temporarily assumes truth to show absurdity).
ANALOGY & SIMILARITY
Bad Analogy
Definition: Claiming two situations are highly similar when they aren’t.
Examples:
“Solar system reminds me of atom, so planets must jump orbits like electrons”
“Minds like rivers can be broad. Broad river = shallow. So broad mind = shallow.”
“We have pure food laws; why not laws against filthy movies?”
Extended Analogy
Definition: Two things both analogous to third thing, therefore analogous to each other.
Example: “You wouldn’t have supported law-breaking by Martin Luther King, would you?” → “Are you saying this issue is as important as civil rights? How dare you!”
Hitler Example: “Hitler believed X; you believe X; therefore you’re like Hitler” (But Hitler believed drapes should reach floor - does that make it evil?)
Argument From Spurious Similarity
Definition: Resemblance is proof of relationship.
Example: Spotting plane by noticing “little man in cockpit, just like model airplane”.
Reifying
Definition: Abstract thing talked about as if concrete.
Example: “Nature abhors a vacuum”
CAUSATION ERRORS
False Cause
Definition: Assuming because two things happened, first caused second (sequence ≠ causation).
Examples:
“Before women got vote, no nuclear weapons”
“Every time my brother goes to game, team loses”
“Sun goes down because we turned on street lights”
Confusing Correlation And Causation
Definition: Things that vary together must cause each other.
Examples:
Hot chocolate sales up = street crime down (actually: cold weather = fewer people outside)
Bigger shoe size = better handwriting (actually: child is older)
EVIDENCE MANIPULATION
Special Pleading (Stacking The Deck)
Definition: Using arguments that support position while ignoring/disallowing arguments against.
Example: Claiming unbelievers make you unable to demonstrate abilities.
Argument By Half Truth (Suppressed Evidence)
Definition: Omitting crucial information.
Examples:
“Prophecy” recorded after event
Mystery books not mentioning hurricane destroyed ship
Argument By Selective Observation (Cherry Picking)
Definition: Counting hits, forgetting misses.
Examples:
State boasts of accomplishments, silent about failures
Casino bells announce jackpots; losses happen silently
Argument By Selective Reading
Definition: Rebut weakest argument, claim opponent made weak case overall.
Note: Overlooks strong arguments while focusing on weak ones.
GENERALIZATION ERRORS
Argument By Generalization
Definition: Broad conclusion from small, possibly unrepresentative sample.
Examples:
“I know hundreds of people; none are X. So X doesn’t exist.”
“We allow terminally ill to use Y, so everyone should use Y”
Argument From Small Numbers
Definition: Assuming small numbers = big numbers.
Examples:
“I threw three sevens in a row; tonight I can’t lose”
“One-third of mice cured, one-third died, third escaped”
Fallacy Of The General Rule
Definition: Assuming general truth applies in every case.
Examples:
“All chairs have four legs” (except rocking chairs, shooting sticks)
Sometimes laws should be broken (ambulances breaking speed limits)
COMPOSITION & DIVISION
Fallacy Of Composition
Definition: Assuming whole has same simplicity as constituent parts.
Examples:
“Car makes less pollution than bus, so cars are less of pollution problem”
“Atoms colorless, cats made of atoms, so cats colorless”
Note: Science studies emergent properties.
Fallacy Of Division
Definition: Assuming what’s true of whole is true of each part.
Example: “Humans made of atoms; humans conscious; so atoms conscious”
SLIPPERY SLOPE & PROGRESSION
Slippery Slope Fallacy (Camel’s Nose)
Definition: Wrong because it’s next to something wrong, or could slide toward wrong.
Examples:
“Allowing X in mild form leads to allowing X in extreme form”
“Legalize A, more will try B”
“If I make exception for you, I’ll have to for everyone”
Moving The Goalposts (Raising The Bar)
Definition: When opponent addresses point, demand they address further point.
Example: Successfully defend gun position → must now defend knife position → must defend martial arts → etc.
Variation: Lowering bar (predicted prevention doesn’t happen → claim mitigation instead).
COMPLEXITY & GIBBERISH
Appeal To Complexity
Definition: If arguer doesn’t understand topic, concludes nobody does, so opinions equally valid.
Argument By Prestigious Jargon
Definition: Using big words to seem expert.
Example: “Utilize” instead of “use”
Argument By Gibberish (Bafflement)
Definition: Extreme prestigious jargon; invented vocabulary.
Example: “Each autonomous individual emerges holographically within egoless ontological consciousness as non-dimensional geometric point within transcendental thought-wave matrix”
Sources: Copying style without meaning; snow job; poetic language.
WORD GAMES
Equivocation
Definition: Using word to mean one thing, then using it to mean something different.
Examples:
“Sign said ‘fine for parking’, since it was fine, I parked”
“All trees have bark; all dogs bark; so all dogs are trees”
Euphemism
Definition: Using words that sound better.
Examples:
Lab rat wasn’t killed, was “sacrificed”
Mass murder wasn’t genocide, was “ethnic cleansing”
Death of innocents is “collateral damage”
Weasel Wording
Definition: Word changes to claim new concept rather than soften old.
Examples:
“War” becomes “police action”, “protective reaction strike”
War Departments → Departments of Defense
Untested medicines → “alternative medicines”
CONSISTENCY & CONTRADICTION
Inconsistency
Definition: Different standards for similar cases.
Example: “Declining metrics in System A = A’s failure” vs. “Similar metrics in System B ≠ B’s failure”
Internal Contradiction
Definition: Two contradictory claims in same argument.
Example: “I never borrowed his car, and it had that dent when I got it”
STATISTICS & PROBABILITY
Misunderstanding Statistics (Innumeracy)
Definition: Not understanding basic statistical concepts.
Examples:
Being astonished half of people have below-average intelligence
Not understanding “regression to mean” (things return to normal)
Reporting “doubled risk” without mentioning absolute increase is tiny
LOGIC REVERSALS
Affirming The Consequent
Definition: Logic reversal: “If P then Q” becomes “Q therefore P”
Examples:
“All cats die; Socrates died; so Socrates was cat”
“If P, we’d see Q. We see Q. So P is proven.” (Actually: Q consistent with P, doesn’t prove P uniquely)
Non Sequitur
Definition: Conclusion doesn’t follow.
Examples:
“Thousands saw unexplained lights. So alien life is certain.”
“Religion helps many people. So its teachings are true.”
“Bill lives in large building. So his apartment is large.”
SPECIAL CASES & MISCELLANEOUS
Appeal To Widespread Belief (Bandwagon, Peer Pressure)
Definition: Many people believe it, so it must be true.
Valid For: Social conventions (”good manners”)
Invalid For: Facts (popular beliefs can be wrong)
Cliche Thinking
Definition: Using wise saying as if proven, with no exceptions.
Argument By Repetition (Ad Nauseam)
Definition: Say something often enough, people believe it.
Argument By Pigheadedness (Doggedness)
Definition: Refusing to accept after everyone else convinced.
Genetic Fallacy (Fallacy of Origins)
Definition: If argument has particular origin, it must be right (or wrong).
Problem: Origin doesn’t determine correctness.
Argument Of The Beard
Definition: Assuming spectrum ends are same since you can travel in small steps.
Example: “Clean-shaven = big beard (since in-between exists)”
Counter: Pink existing doesn’t undermine distinction between white and red.
Common Sense
Definition: Claiming “common sense” answers exist when they don’t.
Problem: Common sense depends on context, knowledge, experience.
Least Plausible Hypothesis
Definition: Ignoring reasonable explanations for desired one.
Example: “Left milk out. In morning, gone. Clearly, fairies visited.”
Occam’s Razor: Simplest explanation is best; don’t introduce new concepts (fairies) when old ones (cats) work.
Argument By Scenario
Definition: Telling story tying unrelated material, using story as proof they’re related.
Hypothesis Contrary To Fact
Definition: Arguing from something that might have happened but didn’t.
Reductio Ad Absurdum
Definition: Showing opponent’s argument leads to absurd conclusion.
Valid When: Properly applied to show logical consequence.
Invalid When: Only showing argument doesn’t apply in ALL cases.
False Compromise
Definition: If you don’t understand debate, “fair” to split difference.
Problem: One side possibly wrong; could suspend judgment instead.
Example: “Some say sun rises east, some say west; truth probably in between”
Fallacy Of The Crucial Experiment
Definition: Claiming idea proved/disproved by pivotal discovery.
Problem: “Smoking gun” history is soundbite distortion.
Reality: Background first, buttressing after.
Two Wrongs Make A Right (Tu Quoque)
Definition: Answering wrongdoing charge by saying others have sinned.
Examples:
“Okay to keep their pen since they would have taken mine”
“They did it first” (justifying atrocities)
Pious Fraud
Definition: Fraud to accomplish good end; end justifies means.
In Debates: Shaded, distorted, or fabricated assertion by emotionally committed speaker.
Error Of Fact
Definition: Simply being wrong about facts.
Note: One error usually means more errors to find.
Argument From Personal Astonishment
Definition: “I don’t see how this is possible, so it isn’t”
Lies
Definition: Intentional Errors of Fact.
Contrarian Argument
Definition: Espousing something generally ill-regarded or disproven.
Motivations: Make people think, needling, external agenda, oppose conformity, ego.
Note: Being contrarian doesn’t make you wrong, but if position ill-regarded for reason, defense is uphill.
Ambiguous Assertion
Definition: Statement unclear enough to leave leeway.
Failure To State
Definition: Making enough attacks/questions to never define your position.
Outdated Information
Definition: Giving old information, not latest.
Amazing Familiarity
Definition: Speaker has information there’s no way to get based on their statements.
Having Your Cake (Failure To Assert)
Definition: Almost claiming something but backing out.
Meaningless Questions
Definition: Questions with no valid answer.
Example: Irresistible forces meeting immovable objects.
Disproof By Fallacy
Definition: Conclusion reached fallaciously, so incorrectly declared wrong.
Note: Different from Reductio Ad Absurdum.
About This Reference
Source: This comprehensive fallacy list was compiled from the Don Lindsay Archive’s “A List of Fallacious Arguments.” The original website (don-lindsay-archive.org) is no longer accessible, including via archive.org.
Original Attribution: The Don Lindsay Archive credited these fallacy definitions to the work of logicians and critical thinking educators, drawing particularly from formal logic traditions, debate theory and practice, and critical thinking education.
Purpose: This reference is preserved here for educational purposes to support critical thinking, media literacy, and resistance to manipulation in public discourse.
Related Content: This reference guide accompanies the essay “Think for Yourself: A Citizen’s Guide to Fallacy Literacy” which explores why understanding these patterns matters for democratic participation.
Last Updated: January 2026